Memory, its types. The biological significance of memory

Definition of memory

Memory- this is a mental property of a person, the ability to accumulate, (remember) store, and reproduce experience and information. Another definition, says: memory is the ability to recall individual experiences from the past, realizing not only the experience itself, but its place in the history of our life, its placement in time and space. Memory is difficult to reduce to one concept. But we emphasize that memory is a set of processes and functions that expand the cognitive capabilities of a person. Memory covers all impressions about the world that a person has. Memory is a complex structure of several functions or processes that ensure the fixation of a person's past experience. Memory can be defined as a psychological process that performs the functions of storing, storing and reproducing material. These three functions are fundamental to memory.

Another important fact: memory stores and restores very different elements of our experience: intellectual, emotional, and motor-motor. The memory of feelings and emotions can last even longer than the intellectual memory of specific events.

Basic features of memory

The most important features, integral characteristics of memory are: duration, speed, accuracy, readiness, volume (memorization and reproduction). These characteristics determine how productive a person's memory is. These memory traits will be mentioned later in this work, but for now - a brief description of the memory productivity traits:

1. Volume - the ability to simultaneously store a significant amount of information. The average amount of memory is 7 elements (units) of information.

2. Speed ​​of memorization- differs from person to person. The speed of memorization can be increased with the help of a special memory training.

3. Accuracy - accuracy is manifested in the recall of facts and events that a person has encountered, as well as in the recall of the content of information. This trait is very important in learning.

4. Duration- the ability to retain the experience for a long time. A very individual quality: some people can remember the faces and names of school friends many years later (long-term memory is developed), some forget them after only a few years. The duration of memory is selective.

5. Ready to play - the ability to quickly reproduce information in the mind of a person. It is thanks to this ability that we can effectively use the experience gained earlier.

There are different classifications of types of human memory:

1. By the participation of the will in the process of memorization;

2. According to the mental activity that prevails in the activity.

3. By the duration of information storage;

4. In essence, the subject and method of memorization.

By the nature of the participation of the will.

According to the nature of the target activity, memory is divided into involuntary and arbitrary.

1) involuntary memory means memorization and reproduction automatically, without any effort.

2) Arbitrary memory implies cases where a specific task is present, and volitional efforts are used for memorization.

It has been proven that material that is interesting to a person, that is important, is of great importance, is involuntarily remembered.

By the nature of mental activity.

According to the nature of mental activity, with the help of which a person remembers information, memory is divided into motor, emotional (affective), figurative and verbal-logical.

1) Motor (kinetic) memory there is memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction of diverse, complex movements. This memory is actively involved in the development of motor (labor, sports) skills and abilities. All manual movements of a person are associated with this type of memory. This memory manifests itself in a person first of all, and is essential for the normal development of the child.

2) Emotional memory- memory for experiences. Especially this kind of memory is manifested in human relationships. As a rule, what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a long time. It has been proven that there is a connection between the pleasantness of an experience and how it is retained in memory. Pleasant experiences are retained much better than unpleasant ones. Human memory is generally optimistic by nature. It is human nature to forget the unpleasant; memories of terrible tragedies, over time, lose their sharpness.

This type of memory plays an important role in human motivation, and this memory manifests itself very early: in infancy (about 6 months).

3) Figurative memory - associated with the memorization and reproduction of sensory images of objects and phenomena, their properties, relationships between them. This memory begins to manifest itself by the age of 2 years, and reaches its highest point by adolescence. Images can be different: a person remembers both images of various objects and a general idea of ​​them, with some kind of abstract content. In turn, figurative memory is divided according to the type of analyzers that are involved in memorizing impressions by a person. Figurative memory can be visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile and gustatory.

Different people have more active different analyzers, but as it was said at the beginning of the work, most people have better developed visual memory.

· Visual memory- associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. People with a developed visual memory usually have a well-developed imagination and are able to "see" information even when it no longer affects the senses. Visual memory is very important for people of certain professions: artists, engineers, designers. Mentioned before eidetic vision, or phenomenal memory b, is also characterized by a rich imagination, an abundance of images.

· Auditory memory - this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds: speech, music. Such a memory is especially necessary when studying foreign languages, musicians, composers.

· Tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory- these are examples of memory (there are other types that will not be mentioned) that do not play a significant role in human life, because. the possibilities of such memory are very limited and its role is to satisfy the biological needs of the body. These types of memory develop especially acutely in people of certain professions, as well as in special life circumstances. (Classic examples: blind-born and deaf-blind-mute).

4) Verbal-logical memory - this is a kind of memorization, when a word, thought, logic plays an important role in the memorization process. In this case, a person tries to understand the information being assimilated, clarify the terminology, establish all the semantic connections in the text, and only after that remember the material. It is easier for people with a developed verbal-logical memory to memorize verbal, abstract material, concepts, formulas. This type of memory, in combination with auditory, is possessed by scientists, as well as experienced lecturers, university professors, etc. logical memory when trained gives very good results, and is more effective than mere rote memorization. Some researchers believe that this memory is formed and begins to "work" later than other species. P.P. Blonsky called it "memory-story". A child already has it at the age of 3-4, when the very foundations of logic begin to develop. The development of logical memory occurs with the teaching of the child the basics of science.

By the duration of information storage:

1) Instant or iconic memory

This memory retains material that has just been received by the senses without any processing of information. The duration of this memory is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Often, in this case, a person remembers information without conscious effort, even against his will. This is a memory image.

An individual perceives electromagnetic oscillations, changes in air pressure, changes in the position of an object in space, giving them a certain value. The stimulus always carries certain information specific only to it. The physical parameters of the stimulus affecting the receptor in the sensory system are converted into certain states of the central nervous system (CNS). Establishing a correspondence between the physical parameters of the stimulus and the state of the central nervous system is impossible without the work of memory. This memory is manifested in children as early as preschool age, but over the years its importance for a person increases.

2) short term memory

Saving information for a short period of time: on average, about 20 s. This kind of memory can occur after a single or very brief perception. This memory works without a conscious effort to remember, but with an attitude towards future reproduction. The most essential elements of the perceived image are stored in memory. Short-term memory "turns on" when the so-called actual consciousness of a person operates (that is, what is realized by a person and somehow correlates with his actual interests and needs).

Information is entered into short-term memory by paying attention to it. For example: a person who has seen his watch hundreds of times may not answer the question: “Which figure - Roman or Arabic - is the number six shown on the watch?”. He never purposefully perceived this fact, and thus the information was not deposited in short-term memory.

The amount of short-term memory is very individual, and there are developed formulas and methods for measuring it. In this regard, it is necessary to mention such features as substitution property. When an individual memory space becomes full, new information partially replaces what is already stored there, and the old information often disappears forever. A good example would be the difficulty in remembering the abundance of first and last names of people we have just met. A person is able to retain no more names in short-term memory than his individual memory capacity allows.

By making a conscious effort, you can keep information in memory longer, which will ensure its transfer to working memory. This is the basis of memorization by repetition.

In fact, short-term memory plays a critical role. Thanks to short-term memory, a huge amount of information is processed. The unnecessary is immediately eliminated and what is potentially useful remains. As a result, there is no overload of long-term memory with unnecessary information. Short-term memory organizes a person’s thinking, since thinking “draws” information and facts from short-term and operative memory.

3) Working memory is memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period. The storage period of information ranges from a few seconds to several days.

After solving the task, the information may disappear from the RAM. A good example would be the information that a student is trying to put in during an exam: the time frame and the task are clearly set. After passing the exam, there is again a complete "amnesia" on this issue. This type of memory is, as it were, transitional from short-term to long-term, as it includes elements of both memory.

4) long-term memory - memory capable of storing information indefinitely.

This memory does not begin to function immediately after the material has been memorized, but after some time. A person must switch from one process to another: from memorization to reproduction. These two processes are incompatible and their mechanisms are completely different.

Interestingly, the more often information is reproduced, the more firmly it is fixed in memory. In other words, a person can recall information at any necessary moment with the help of an effort of will. It is interesting to note that mental ability is not always an indicator of the quality of memory. For example, in weak-minded people, phenomenal long-term memory is sometimes found.

Why is the ability to store information necessary for the perception of information? This is due to two main reasons. First, a person deals at each moment of time with only relatively small fragments of the external environment. In order to integrate these time-separated influences into a coherent picture of the surrounding world, the effects of previous events in the perception of subsequent events must be, so to speak, “at hand”. The second reason has to do with the purposefulness of our behavior. The acquired experience should be remembered in such a way that it can be successfully used for the subsequent regulation of forms of behavior aimed at achieving similar goals. The information stored in a person's memory is evaluated by him in terms of its significance for controlling behavior and, in accordance with this assessment, is kept in varying degrees of readiness.

Human memory is not in the least a passive store of information - it is an active activity.

Independent work No. 5

To prepare for the half-semester and final certification, solve tests

Restore compliance.

The left column gives the name of the properties of perception of sensations, in the right - their definitions. Your task is to connect with arrows each of the names of the properties of perception and the definition corresponding to these properties.

Perception:

Memory.

Thinking.

Attention.

Independent work No. 6: the topic "Psychology of a small group"

Cohesion is the formation of a special type of connections that allow the formal structure, given from the outside, to be turned into:

a) a group of meetings; c) communication;

b) psychological community; d) a corporation.

Cohesion factors in a small group include the following five indicators: 1) emotional attractiveness of group members; 2) conformism; 3) the similarity of the members of the group among themselves; 4) motivation for cooperation; 5) motivation of antagonism; 6) general goals; 7) satisfaction of each member of the group with group activities:

a) 1,2,3,4,6 c) 1,3,4,6,7

b) 1,2,3,5,6 d) 1,4,5,6,7

Collectivism is the priority of the interests of the group over .... interests.

Awareness of differences in opinions with other people and external agreement with them, realized in behavior, is:

a) suggestion; c) facilitation;

b) imitation; d) conformity.

A structureless accumulation for a short period of people, deprived of a clearly perceived commonality of goals, but interconnected by a similarity of emotional state and a common object of attention, is called:

a) crowd c) audience;

b) weight; d) a group.

The selective response of a group member to the impact of the group and the adoption of opinions consistent with group goals is:

a) value-oriented unity;

b) emotional identification;

c) collectivist self-determination of the individual;

d) similarity of functional and role expectations.

A group united only by internal goals, not going beyond its scope, striving to achieve its group goals at any cost, including at the expense of other groups, is called:

a) a corporation c) cooperation;

b) association; d) diffuse group.

Increasing the cohesion of the group leads, as a rule, to:

a) the desire of group members to reduce their personal contribution to joint activities;

b) the desire to weaken the influence of the group and move to another;

c) reducing the influence of the group on its members;

d) strengthening the influence of the group on its members;

The position of a person in society, established in terms of rights and duties, is called:

a) social attitude; c) public prestige;

b) public position; d) social status;

The process of group development, the result of which is the differentiation of the group structure, its improvement, due to the personal initiative of the participants, is called:

a) socialization c) group dynamics;

b) leadership; d) conformism.

Increasing the speed and productivity of activity due to the actualization in the mind of the image of another person, acting as either a rival or an observer,

a) fantasy c) facilitation;

b) causal integration; d) idealization.

A real social community, in which there is no cohesion and value-oriented unity, is called:

a) a corporation c) diffuse group;

b) informal group; d) crowd.

The dynamic aspect of status, the expression of one's rights and obligations in accordance with social expectations.

a) role; c) prestige;

b) position; d) remuneration;

A change in the behavior or beliefs of an individual as a result of real or imagined group pressure is characterized as a phenomenon ...

a) conformism c) compliance

b) conflict d) approval

A formal group is called...

a) non-existent

b) created within the framework of officially recognized organizations

c) self-folding

d) the most significant for a person

The concept of a primary group was first introduced by…..

a) C. Osgood c) G. Allport

b) J. Moreno d) C. Cooley

Signs of a small group do not include:

a) the presence of two or more people c) people's perception and understanding of each other

b) the implementation of continuous contacts d) the presence of a common goal

The special quality of the group, the highest level of its development is denoted by the term:

a) cooperation; c) a corporation;

b) team; d) association.

The group with which the child relates himself and whose norms and values ​​are the reference for his behavior and self-esteem is called:

a) informal c) referential

b) anti-referential d) static

Individual contribution to joint activities with an increase in the number of participants:

a) stays the same c) sharply increases;

b) proportionally increases; d) proportionally decreases.

The essence of the method of sociometry is to identify:

a) social qualities of group members; c) systems of sympathies - antipathies;

b) value orientation of group members; d) systems of external relations of the group.

Sociometry is a method that allows you to study ...... the members of the group, as well as ......., which is occupied by each member in the group.

The sociometric structure of a small group is a set of ... .. positions of group members in the system of intergroup interpersonal preferences.

The sociometric structure of the group has the following four characteristics: 1) status; 2) reciprocity; 3) conformism; 4) facilitation; 5) stable intergroup preferences; 6) rejection system:

a) 1,3,4,6; c) 1,2,5,6;

b) 1,2,3,4; d) 2,4,5,6.

Group favoritism is a mechanism of intergroup perception, which consists in the tendency .... own group and its members when compared with other comparable groups.

Individualism is the position of a person in which he makes decisions and acts in accordance with .... goals, preferring them to goals ......

The sociometric procedure was first proposed by:

a) Kolomensky Ya.L.; c) Moreno J;

b) Parygin B.D.; d) Allport G.

The method of sociometry allows you to identify ...

a) the status of a person in a group c) motives for interpersonal choices

b) group contradictions d) social norms

A leader is someone who is better than others:

a) relates to other members of the group; c) knows the history of the group;

b) is aware of the criteria for the commonality of the group; d) fulfills group norms.

Social power is a system of relative positions of group members depending on their ability to provide ... ... in a group.

Social power in the group is realized through ... and ......

The process by which certain group members motivate and lead the group is called:

a) management; c) management;

b) dominance; d) leadership.

Reference type of social power in the group:

a) is based on the relationship of sympathy and emotional preference of the leader;

b) is based on the superiority of the leader;

c) is realized through coercion;

d) is based on rewarding other members of the group by the leader.

The constructive type of influence, provided that we have clearly and openly formulated the goal of our influence to the partner, is called ...

a) suggestion c) persuasion

b) infection d) coercion

Expecting the implementation of the norms and ways of behavior that are established in the group is called:

a) expectation; c) reference;

b) leadership; d) conformity.

Types of memory - Structural features of mnemonic activity associated with various memorization mechanisms, temporal indicators of retention in memory, characteristics of the material.

According to the nature of the memorized material, the following types of memory are distinguished:

visual,

auditory,

Tactile.

According to the parameters of the duration of information storage in memory, there are:

Sensory (storage period is not more than 1.5 s.),

Short-term (shelf life is not more than 30 s.),

Long-term (allows you to store the material permanently, albeit with some fading in time).

These are the most common types of memory in scientific use. There are other approaches to memory classification, depending on the needs of researchers. Psychologists, as the most general grounds for distinguishing various types of memory, consider the dependence of memory characteristics on the characteristics of activity for:

memorization,

storage,

Reproduction of information.

Memorization is obviously closely connected with the nature of mental activity that predominates in activity. So memory is:

motor,

emotional,

figurative,

Verbal-logical.

Activity, and hence memorization, depends, of course, on the goals of the activity. According to this indicator, memory is divided into:

Arbitrary,

Involuntary.

Storing information is not a very good term, because usually the word "storage" means something like the passive lying of an object on a shelf in a closet. Storing information in a computer is also a very passive process, and usually the safety of a particular file does not depend on how often it is used.

For a person, the storage of information is its periodic use. The more often a person scrolls through this or that information in his head, and the more he uses it in daily activities or thoughts, the more information is stored. It happens, of course, that this or that information pops up in the mind decades later, but the general pattern is this: the more often you use it, the less likely it is to lose information and the easier it is to remember.

When does memory enter the body? In the philistine view, memory begins approximately from the moment when certain conscious actions are performed on the material to be remembered. For example, the teacher gave the task to the student to learn a poem. The student came home, changed clothes, had lunch, sat down for lessons - activated his memory.

However, we should not forget about the general principle of the work of memory, inherent in us by nature. And this principle is one - the preservation of external signals in time. If a stone is thrown at a person, then the pain sensation will spread along the nerve fibers after the blow has been received, the pain signal will arrive in perception and consciousness even later; the stone has already fallen to the ground, and discomfort and pain are still felt (in part, the sensation of pain may persist in time due to a violation of the integrity of the skin); years will pass, and the person will remember both that they threw a stone at him, and the one who threw it, and the circumstances under which it happened. If memory did not exist at all, then immediately after the stone ceased to come into contact with the skin of the victim, the latter would have forgotten about it.

Therefore, the mechanisms of memory come into action immediately, as soon as the receptors have been subjected to one or another effect. Further, the processes of storing information come into force. As already mentioned, one of the common reasons for dividing memory into types is by storage time. Allocate sensory, short-term (and related operational), long-term. Each of these types of memory is not only its type, but also a stage in the processing (storing) of information. Sensory memory is busy saving in time the most accurate picture of the surrounding situation (image, sound, etc.). But our memory cannot store all the information one-to-one. If everything memorized would be recorded without distortion on the "internal hard disk", then every second about 25 megabytes of information would come from sight alone. Therefore, short-term memory comes into play, which simplifies the perceived information as much as possible. Simplification occurs, for example, by highlighting the figure from the background, schematization. Associations are active.

If a poem is recited in our presence (for example, "Russia cannot be understood with the mind" by Tyutchev), then we do not remember the words, because we already know them; an association with previously memorized information is developed in the brain; as a result, our memory stores a memory like this: "Morkovkin ... Tyutchev ... Mind ... pathetic ..." Each of these words is an association with the one already stored in the memory: "Morkovkin" is an association with the image of a colleague, "Tyutchev "- with the image of the poet, "Mind" - with his poem, "Paphos" - with characteristic intonations. When someone subsequently asks us to tell how the party went, we will remember this episode and use the key association words to restore the picture of what happened. We already, one to one, do not remember what happened, but we can reconstruct the events. Knowing, for example, Morkovkin's character, we can assume how he spoke, what gestures he made, etc.

The main task, therefore, of short-term memory is to simplify the memorized material as much as possible, to separate the essential from the non-essential, and to create the prerequisites for long-term storage of information. However, a huge number of life, educational, work situations require not only and even not so much the work of long-term memory as the work of short-term memory. A housewife preparing a new dish using an unfamiliar recipe, a student using a cheat sheet in an exam, an auto mechanic repairing a car - these situations make you strain your memory, but the long-term result does not matter. The housewife may no longer cook with this recipe (and if she does, she may use it again), the student is only interested in a good grade (and work in the specialty is not so soon), it is not at all the job of an auto mechanic to remember every car he made. Therefore, in order to highlight special cases when long-term storage of information is not of interest, the concept of random access memory was introduced. Working memory is just a characteristic subspecies of short-term memory. Also, working memory can be considered as some functional state of short-term memory.

For ordinary short-term memory, it is characteristic that information that is significant for the individual passes into long-term. As a rule, this is achieved by developing associative links with information already stored in memory. All this information stored in long-term memory, although very loose, nevertheless has integrity, which can be called a picture (model) of the world. New information enters this model of the world, provided that the information is interesting and useful (that is, it fills a certain gap in knowledge), consistent (that is, true in relation to the model of the world).

Suppose a religious person tells an atheist that the world was created 8,000 years ago from a cuckoo's egg. An atheist will remember this information, but in what form? He cannot remember, enter into his model of the world that he was created 8,000 years ago from a cuckoo's egg. But this is not necessary. The atheist simply remembers, puts into his long-term memory the record: "There are people, at least one person, who believe that the world was created 8000 years ago from a cuckoo's egg. It's funny, you can tell it like a joke."

The work of short-term memory in the normal mode is very flexible. A person constantly turns to his long-term memory, a model of the world, trying to supplement the latter with new knowledge. In other words, there is a constant search for truth.

When short-term memory operates in operational mode, then, on the one hand, the efficiency of momentary retention of operational information increases quite significantly, on the other hand, the criticality to information, its comprehension, and the transition to long-term memory sharply decrease. Even after five minutes, it may already be that a person does not remember some fairly significant information (a housewife cannot remember whether she put a bay leaf or not, a student cannot remember a definition that he just copied from a cheat sheet, an auto mechanic cannot remember how many bolts he screwed.

It can be assumed that the natural mechanism that triggers working memory is a stressed functional state. In cases where a person is forced to solve intellectual problems in a limited time, RAM is launched. That is why scientists of all times and peoples like to do science slowly, in a calm environment, for them quality is more important than quantity.

Another well-known classification of types of memory was proposed by P. P. Blonsky, is made according to the nature of mental activity:

motor,

emotional,

figurative,

Verbal-logical.

These types of memory are closely related to each other. Even such distant (seemingly) from each other types of memory, such as motor and verbal-logical, are interconnected. Our verbal-logical memory relies on the speech apparatus, and when we repeat the lines of our favorite poem, for example, our speech apparatus is activated, although its activity remains suppressed: the muscles with which we speak are barely noticeably tense. Therefore, every time we repeat something to ourselves, we say it, only silently.

Motor (or motor) memory - memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements. Motor memory is the basis for the formation of various practical, including labor, skills, as well as walking, writing, etc.

Nature has endowed our organisms with rich possibilities in terms of movement. Some movements have more innate correlates, some have less. There are a number of congenital unconditioned reflexes, for example grasping. But all more or less complex movements have to learn. Only by the end of the first year of life the child gets on his feet. Many years will pass before a child learns to play the piano or dance on the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre. Without movement memory, we would have to learn each time to carry out the appropriate actions, which is not real.

When reproducing movements, a person does not always repeat them one to one in the same form as before. Some variability of them, a deviation from the original movements, no doubt, there is. But the general character of the movements still remains. It should also be taken into account that a person, in principle, cannot repeat the same movement exactly. The reason for this is the internal skeleton and a complex system of building movements. Unlike birds, for example, we have a pyramidal nervous system. If the movements of birds are choppy, similar to the movements of robots, then the movements of a person are smooth, but subject to interference.

Experiments have shown that movements are most accurately reproduced under the conditions in which they were performed earlier. In completely new, unaccustomed conditions, we often reproduce movements with great imperfection. It is not difficult to repeat the movements if we are used to performing them using a certain tool or with the help of some specific people, and in the new conditions we were deprived of this opportunity.

Interestingly, movements are easier to remember in a complex of other movements. It is easier to remember one set of ten movements than ten independent movements performed in random order. If once the movement was part of such a complex, then it will be much more difficult to reproduce it.

Suppose a certain person for five years came to work, opened the office door, undressed, changed shoes, turned on the computer, made himself coffee, then entered the password and started working. During these five years, he was so used to typing a password that he could simply forget it in his verbal expression, especially if the password consists of a complex combination of letters and numbers. However, his fingers "remember" this password, and over the past four years he has never been mistaken. If this person is asked to voice the password, then he may not succeed immediately (you will need to imagine how he is typing the password). If he suddenly decides to work remotely, connecting to the server from his home, then the same thing can happen: the password cannot be dialed. And it fails because the action was pulled out of the complex.

Emotional memory is, as the name implies, memory for emotions and feelings. This type of memory lies in our ability to remember and reproduce all sorts of emotions and feelings. Emotions always signal how our needs and interests are satisfied, how our relations with the outside world are carried out. Emotions connect us to our instincts - innate patterns of behavior. This is an important circumstance, because the importance of emotional memory for a person's personal growth is difficult to overestimate. So man, like any other animal, is arranged that he is inclined to repeat those situations in which he was pleased, and to avoid those situations that cause unpleasant memories.

Emotional memory can be both constructive and destructive. If, for example, a child enjoys getting A's, he will strive to continue to study well in order to get A's more often. If, in front of a child, a person drowned in the river and this caused a shock, then the whole next life he may be afraid to approach the water, because the sight of water evokes very negative memories.

For emotional memories in all languages ​​there are special words. In Russian it is "feelings". We remember chocolate, we are visited by pleasant emotions - we say that we love chocolate. We remember some unpleasant person, we are visited by unpleasant emotions - we say that we hate this person. The very word "feeling" is connected with "feel" in the sense of "feel". This is due to the fact that we actually feel our emotions and feel them with our whole body.

Interestingly, the work of emotional memory can be not only the cause of feelings, but also a consequence of them. If we are in a quarrel with someone, then, remembering the situation involving this person, we can interpret this situation in a negative way (for example, it may seem to us that this person wanted to insult us and insulted us). If we reconciled, then the memories can be completely different. Like any other kind of memory, emotional memory is not an accurate and impartial reflection of the actual state of affairs, but an exemplary and subjective one.

Figurative memory is a memory for expanded representations:

Visual pictures of nature and scenes from life,

Complex sounds (including musical works).

Memory for smells, tastes, and tactile impressions is sometimes referred to as figurative memory. The essence of figurative memory lies in the fact that what was previously perceived is then reproduced in the form of expanded representations. When characterizing figurative memory, one should keep in mind all those features that are characteristic of representations, and above all them:

Pallor,

Fragmentation

Instability.

For figurative memory, these defects are most noticeable. Each person at least once in his life strained his memory to imagine in detail, for example, what St. Basil's Cathedral looks like or what outlines Japan has...

For figurative memory, innate inclinations are of great importance. People with a very well-developed visual analyzer can remember how many buttons were on a kindergarten teacher's dress, and people with a very well-developed audio analyzer can sing a song once heard from memory.

Experimental psychologists have studied quite a lot the features of the deviation of ideas from the original image of perception. Basically, these deviations can go in two ways:

By mixing the mixing of images,

Due to the differentiation of images.

In the first case, the image loses its specific features, and the common thing that the object has with other similar objects or phenomena comes to the fore. In the second case, the features characteristic of a given image are intensified in the memory, emphasizing the originality of the object or phenomenon.

The next type of memory, verbal-logical, is expressed in the memorization and reproduction of our thoughts. This type of memory evolved from figurative memory (sound). At some stage of evolution, it became profitable to perceive and pronounce sounds not only in the form of images, but also in the form of complex sequences of sounds, that is, in a coded, conditional form.

We remember and reproduce thoughts as if we were talking to ourselves: speech from the outside became the inside. Modern speech is not only sounds, but also letters, but nevertheless, those parts of the brain associated with the processing of sound stimuli take part in the processing and storage of verbal-logical information.

Verbal-logical memory appeared when a person learned to conditionally encode pronounced sounds (once "U-A-O" was just a kind of cry that does not differ from "A-U-O", now the first means, for example, fire, and the second is to hunt). Therefore, for the full-fledged work of verbal-logical memory, a layer called language is needed. Without a language (a coding system), all speech loses its meaning. When memorizing a sentence (for example, "Mom washed the frame"), we don't really remember each sound separately. We use associations with the language and, as it were, pull the strings. They pulled one thread - here is the word-concept "mother", the second - "soap", the third - "frame".

A language is something like a library of standard sounds permanently stored in memory. The sound here means not only the actual sounds, but also words, and even whole phrases (for example, "Hello! How are you?"). Each sound has a unique meaning, with its own associations. Also, which is very important, we are able to reproduce any sound from the language with our speech apparatus. Language is often viewed as a social tool, which of course it is. But its other most important function is to facilitate the work of verbal-logical memory.

As already mentioned, memory is divided into arbitrary and involuntary, which depends on the goals of the activity. If a purposeful activity is carried out to memorize the material, then we are talking about arbitrary activities (for example, a student is preparing for an exam). If memorization is not purposeful, they speak of involuntary memory (for example, we can remember that yesterday it was raining, and the day before yesterday it was snowing).

Involuntary memory is not necessarily weaker than voluntary memory. On the contrary, it often happens that involuntarily memorized material is reproduced better than material that was specially memorized. For example, an involuntarily heard phrase or perceived visual information is often remembered more reliably than if we tried to remember it specifically. The material that is in the center of attention is involuntarily remembered, and especially when certain mental work is associated with it. As noted above, the work of short-term memory is carried out constantly, interesting and useful things are deposited in long-term memory, chaotic, boring and useless are ignored and replaced in the mind by other material. When we try to remember something in an arbitrary sense (what we need, not what we want), we:

We focus on what we need

We use various kinds of mnemonic means (for example, we use associations in our minds, we simply repeat many times),

We cheer ourselves up.

This is the arbitrary nature of the work of memory. It is quite easy to memorize small amounts of boring information in this way. However, there is no particular guarantee that this information will remain in long-term memory. For successful memorization, interest is very important, and, unfortunately or joyfully, it is difficult to manage it. Self-hypnosis can act as a substitute for interest: "This is very important, this must be remembered."

It is the most important element of its activity. Throughout a person's life, all his impressions and knowledge are recorded in memory. Its types help to better assimilate information of a certain nature. The manifestations of memory are extremely multifaceted and can be divided into several main categories. Different types of human memory are characterized by different features.

Types of memory for mental activity

According to the nature of mental activity, the following types of memory are distinguished.

motor memory provides a person with the memorization of his movements. It underlies the formation of many practical and labor skills. In particular, these include walking, the ability to write, use various tools when working. In some cases, this type of memory must be developed especially well for successful professional activity, for example, among athletes or ballet dancers.

emotional memory is a memory of previously experienced emotions and feelings. Experiences stored in memory become the reason for the emergence of associations and actions based on them in the event that a similar or similar situation arises again.

figurative memory characterized by memorizing can be pictures of nature, sounds, smells. As a rule, visual and auditory memory play a leading role in human life and are best developed. Other types of this memory are much less developed in many people, but there are exceptions, most often associated with the olfactory memory of the creators of perfumes or the taste of tasters far exceed the usual level. A good tactile memory is often found in the blind. There are also people who have the ability to retain in memory the smallest details of the objects they see for some time.

Verbal-logical memory in its content represents human thoughts based on language. There are two types of such memory. In the first case, the main meaning is better remembered without an emphasis on details, while in the second case, memorization is more literal.

Types of memory according to the goals of the activity

There are also types of memory according to the nature of the goals of the activity.

involuntary memory differs in that it lacks the very purpose of memorization. It has been established that this type of memory is more developed in children, and noticeably weakens with age. An interesting feature is that in this case the information is very often remembered reliably, although there is no such purpose.

Arbitrary memory improves with age, which is largely facilitated by the use of special memorization techniques and targeted training.

Memory is divided into types and according to the duration of storage of the material.

sensory memory is characterized by the fact that all processes proceed at the level of receptors, and information is generally stored for no more than half a second. If the information is of interest to the brain, then it is delayed. Otherwise, it is erased completely and completely.

short term memory comes into play when the information is delayed more than one second. Within about 20 seconds, it is processed in order to determine its degree of importance. If the brain recognizes it as worthy of attention, then the elements of information (numbers, words, names of objects, images) are transmitted further. The amount of short-term memory is very small, at the same time it can contain no more than five to nine elements. It is from this quantity that selection occurs, and the rest is irretrievably lost.

long term memory is something like an archive storage of unlimited capacity, where information received from short-term memory is classified, encoded and stored for long-term storage.

This is the most important function of the body, allowing a person to navigate in the ocean of information surrounding him.

The most general basis for the allocation of various types of memory is the dependence of its characteristics on the characteristics of the activity of memorization and reproduction. At the same time, individual types of memory are singled out in accordance with three main criteria (Fig. 1.4):

1) according to the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical;

2) by the nature of the goals of the activity - on involuntary and arbitrary;

3) by the duration of consolidation and preservation of materials (in connection with its role and place in the activity) - on short-term, long-term and operational. .

The classification of types of memory according to the nature of mental activity was first proposed by P. P. Blonsky. Although all four types of memory he singled out (motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical) do not exist independently of each other, and moreover, they are in close interaction, Blonsky managed to determine the differences between individual types of memory. Consider the characteristics of these four types of memory.

motor memory- this is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. There are people with a pronounced predominance of this type of memory over its other types. The great importance of this type of memory lies in the fact that it serves as the basis for the formation of various practical and labor skills, as well as the skills of walking, writing, etc. Without memory for movement, we would have to learn to carry out the appropriate action every time. Usually a sign of a good motor memory is the physical dexterity of a person, dexterity in work.

Motor memory in a child develops very early. Its first manifestations refer to the first month of life. Initially, it is expressed only in motor conditioned reflexes that are developed in children already at this time. In the future, the memorization and reproduction of movements begin to take on a conscious character, being closely associated with the processes of thinking, will, etc. It should be especially noted that by the end of the first year of life, the child’s motor memory reaches such a level of development that is necessary for the assimilation of speech.

The development of memory occurs at a later time. Thus, motor memory in preschool children reaches a level of development that allows them to perform finely coordinated actions associated with mastering written speech. Therefore, at different stages of development, the manifestations of motor memory are qualitatively heterogeneous. .

emotional memory- memory for feelings. Emotions always signal how our needs and interests are satisfied, how our relations with the outside world are carried out. Emotional memory is therefore very important in the life and work of every person. Feelings experienced and stored in memory act as signals, either inciting to action, or holding back from actions that caused negative experiences in the past.

The first manifestations of memory in a child are observed by the end of the first six months of life. At this time, the child may rejoice or cry at the mere sight of what previously gave him pleasure or pain. However, the initial manifestations of emotional memory are significantly different from later ones. This difference lies in the fact that if in the early stages of a child's development emotional memory is conditioned reflex in nature, then at higher stages of development emotional memory is conscious.

figurative memory- memory for ideas, pictures of nature and life, as well as for sounds, smells, tastes. It can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory. If visual and auditory memory are usually well developed and play a leading role in the life orientation of all normal people, then tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory can in a certain sense be called professional species. Like the corresponding sensations, these types of memory develop especially intensively in connection with the specific conditions of activity, reaching an amazingly high level in conditions of compensation or replacement of the missing types of memory, for example, in the blind, deaf, etc.

Figurative memory begins to manifest itself in children at about the same time as ideas, that is, at one and a half to two years.

Verbal-logical memory expressed in the memorization and reproduction of our thoughts. We remember and reproduce the thoughts that have arisen in us in the process of thinking, thinking, we remember the content of the book we read, talking with friends.

A feature of this type of memory is that thoughts do not exist without language, therefore memory for them is called not just logical, but verbal-logical. At the same time, verbal-logical memory manifests itself in two cases: a) only the meaning of the given material is remembered and reproduced, and the exact preservation of genuine expressions is not required; b) not only the meaning is remembered, but also the literal verbal expression of thoughts (memorization of thoughts). If in the latter case the material is not subjected to semantic processing at all, then its literal memorization turns out to be no longer logical, but mechanical memorization.

Both of these types of memory may not coincide with each other. For example, there are people who remember the meaning of what they read well, but they cannot always accurately and firmly memorize the material, and people who easily memorize by heart cannot reproduce the text “in their own words”.

The development of both types of verbal-logical memory also does not occur parallel to each other. Learning by heart in children sometimes proceeds with greater ease than in adults. At the same time, in memorizing meaning, adults, on the contrary, have significant advantages over children. This is explained by the fact that when memorizing meaning, first of all, what is most significant, most significant, is remembered. In this case, it is obvious that highlighting the essential in the material depends on the understanding of the material, so adults are easier than children to remember the meaning. Conversely, children can easily remember the details, but they are much worse at remembering the meaning.

Thoughts do not exist without language, therefore memory for them is called not just logical, but verbal-logical. Since thoughts can be embodied in various linguistic forms, their reproduction can be oriented towards the transmission of either only the main meaning of the material, or its literal verbal formulation. If in the latter case the material is not subjected to semantic processing at all, then its literal memorization turns out to be no longer logical, but mechanical memorization.

In verbal-logical memory, the main role belongs to the second signal system. Verbal-logical memory is a specifically human memory, in contrast to motor, emotional and figurative memory, which in the simplest forms are also characteristic of animals. Based on the development of other types of memory, verbal-logical memory becomes leading in relation to them, and the development of all other types of memory depends on its development. Verbal-logical memory plays the main role in the assimilation of knowledge by children in the learning process.

There is, however, such a division of memory into types, which is directly related to the features of the most currently performed activity. So, depending on the goals of the activity, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary. Memorization and reproduction, in which there is no special purpose to remember or recall something, is called involuntary memory, in cases where this is a purposeful process, they speak of arbitrary memory.

At the same time, involuntary and voluntary memory represent two successive stages in the development of memory. Everyone from experience knows what a huge place in our life is occupied by involuntary memory, on the basis of which, without special mnemonic intentions and efforts, the main part of our experience, both in volume and in vital significance, is formed.

However, in human activity, it often becomes necessary to manage one's memory. Under these conditions, an important role is played by arbitrary memory, which makes it possible to intentionally memorize or recall what is necessary.

In order for this or that material to be fixed in the memory, it must be processed by the subject in an appropriate way. Such processing requires a certain time, which is called the time of consolidation of traces. Subjectively, this process is experienced as an echo of an event that has just occurred: for a moment, we seem to continue to see, hear, etc., which we no longer directly perceive (before our eyes, sounds in the ears, etc.). These processes are unstable and reversible, but they are so specific and their role in the functioning of the mechanisms of accumulation of experience is so significant that they are considered as a special type of memorization, preservation and reproduction of information, which is called short term memory. Unlike long-term memory, which is characterized by long-term retention of material after repeated repetition and reproduction, short-term memory is characterized by a very short retention.

concept RAM designate mnemonic processes that serve actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person. When we perform any complex operation, for example, arithmetic, we carry it out in parts, pieces. At the same time, we keep "in mind" some intermediate results as long as we are dealing with them. As we move towards the final result, a specific “worked out” material may be forgotten. We observe a similar phenomenon when performing any more or less complex action. Pieces of material that a person operates on can be different (a child begins to read by folding letters). The volume of these pieces, the so-called operational units of memory, significantly affects the success of a particular activity. This determines the importance of forming optimal operational units. .

The criteria that we have adopted as the basis for dividing memory into types associated with various aspects of human activity appear in it not separately, but in organic unity (Fig. 1.5).

Individual differences in people's memory can be of two types: on the one hand, the memory of different people is distinguished by the predominance of one or another modality - visual, auditory, motor; on the other hand, the memory of different people may differ in the level of its organization. Man with visual-figurative type of memory especially well remembers visual images, the color of objects, sounds, faces, etc. So, W. A. ​​Mozart, memorized the most complex pieces of music after one listening.

At verbal-logical type of memory verbal, often abstract material is remembered better: concepts, formulas, etc. For example, A. S. Pushkin could recite a long poem written by another author by heart after reading it twice.

At emotional type of memory First of all, the feelings experienced by a person are preserved and reproduced.

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